Sovereignty, defined as a state’s supreme authority over its territory and decision-making, has underpinned the international system since 1648. However, globalisation and interdependence have blurred these boundaries, redistributing authority among non-state actors. Realists view sovereignty as the state’s ultimate authority, while liberals argue that interdependence and the rise of non-state actors require a new understanding of sovereignty.

Globalisation has increasingly constrained state autonomy. Cross-border flows of capital, information, and people limit independent decision-making and challenge the realist belief in absolute control. Instead, sovereignty is now seen as dispersed among multiple actors, giving rise to ideas such as “sovereignty at bay.”

Yet many states still uphold realist assumptions. China’s rejection of the 2016 UN tribunal ruling over the South China Sea shows that powerful states act independently when their interests are threatened. However, such cases also highlight growing tension between autonomy and cooperation, especially as IGOs increasingly shape state behaviour.

Moreover, IGOs challenge sovereignty through their legitimacy. For example, in the Bakassi Peninsula dispute (2002), Nigeria complied with the ICJ ruling backed by the UN, demonstrating how external authority can override both internal and external sovereignty. Conversely, realists argue that institutions lack autonomy and depend on state compliance, as seen again in China’s rejection of the 2016 ruling. Still, liberal theorists contend that IGOs gain indirect power as states become reliant on repeated cooperation, as reflected in the UN’s 2011 Libya intervention under R2P.

MNCs also erode sovereignty through economic power. Corporations like Apple and Amazon influence tax, labour, and data policies, while governments adapt regulations to retain investment. Tech giants such as Google and Meta further limit state autonomy through their control over digital standards.

In short, although stronger states maintain more control, weaker states are more vulnerable. Overall, sovereignty remains, but is clearly less absolute, increasingly constrained by IGOs, MNCs, and global interdependence.

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